Solar Grazing Best Management Practices 

American Solar Grazing Association 

1. Introduction to Solar Grazing 

Solar grazing is a relatively new and growing industry that uses livestock—most commonly sheep—to graze solar sites as a form of vegetation management. Within these systems, graziers form a contract with site owners to be compensated a fee for grazing to promote a shared purpose of the land and reduce the usage of traditional, mechanical mowing. Solar grazing compared to traditional (gas-powered) vegetative maintenance offers benefits for the solar operator, grazier, and animals.  

Graziers receive additional land access to expand their grazing operation in a financially stable way, while their animals have access to improved forage quality and shaded environments (Kampherbeek et al., 2023; Andrew et al., 2021; Maia et al., 2020). Solar operators gain community support from co-locating solar and agriculture while also improving soil health through proper grazing management (Pascaris et al., 2022; Makhijani, 2021). This section seeks to identify best management practices for solar grazing to capitalize on maximum benefits for those involved in the solar-grazing industry.  

2. Land Access 

One main component of solar grazing practices is to understand the importance of a contract that aligns with the specific elements of the operation and agreements between the involved parties. While solar grazing allows graziers to expand their access to land beyond their home farm, there are many factors to consider before getting involved in a (solar grazing) contract. The ability to have livestock on solar sites is dictated by the state, city, and site owner. For graziers interested in starting solar grazing, EIA’s Energy Mapping Tool is useful for finding  constructed solar arrays across the United States.  

A strong network of connections during this process is one of the greatest resources a potential solar grazier can have. The American Solar Grazing Association (ASGA) is a valuable organization for helping to establish connections with farmers and solar developers, providing several resources and recommendations to get started. The process of starting grazing at a solar site may not always be quick and easy, but with some patience, the benefits from having additional land access from solar greatly outweighs the challenges. As one of the first solar graziers in the U.S., Solar Sheep LLC’s Julie Bishop has experienced this firsthand.  

2.1 Case Study: Julie Bishop, Solar Sheep LLC 

Julie Bishop’s involvement in the solar grazing industry began with a snowball effect after receiving a herding dog. Once she acquired a herding dog for her grazing operation, she trained it in herding at her home, which progressed to owning ewes and lambs and operating a hobby sheep farm. Then, in 2013, Bishop discovered that there was a solar field just five miles from her New Jersey home. She soon realized that sheep could manage the vegetation just as well as the traditional gas-powered mowers that were used on the site. She then got to work to make her idea a reality.  

Bishop began the lengthy process of getting her sheep on that solar site. The land had originally been used as agricultural land but had been forfeited for the sole use of solar. Bishop and the solar company had to go to the municipality to ask for agriculture to be reinstated at that site. Additionally, they had to appear in front of the zoning and planning departments, send a letter to the community, and hold an open comment period in order to receive a variance. Finally, after nearly a year, Bishop was approved to move forward and was able to bring her sheep on-site for grazing.  

A sheep under solar panels. Photo: American Solar Grazing Association 

Despite being one of the first solar graziers and not having connections to consult, Bishop was able to successfully manage her first site. News of this success spread, and additional companies reached out to Bishop to form new contracts. Since then, she has grazed in three states.  

Bishop says that solar grazing changed her life. Once a teacher, she is now a successful farmer who is only able to have her sheep operating at a larger capacity than she initially anticipated because of solar grazing. Her home farm is six acres, but the solar sites she grazes provide her the space she needs to expand her operation. She is now at the point of maximum capacity unless she changes her management style. 

Currently, Bishop puts dry ewes on the solar site in the spring, then adds and removes rams, and brings the ewes home at the end of the grazing season to lamb around November and December. The lambs are then weaned, and the dry ewes return to the solar site. To expand her operation, Bishop would instead start lambing on the solar site around April and May. While the lambing process requires a lot of initial work, it would lead to a less labor-intensive and lower input management for Bishop. Along with changing the way she grazes, Bishop is waiting for more solar sites that are in close proximity to her home farm.  

In addition to the challenges with expanding, Bishop identified some aspects of solar sites that can prove difficult when compared to traditional sheep management, such as site layout, trucking in water, and exterior perimeter fences that lack proper predator-proofing. After years of experience, Bishop has the knowledge and practice to overcome these challenges. For example, she worked with the solar developer at a site to build a bracket to prevent sheep from rubbing up against an emergency switch. The bracket keeps the equipment safe from the sheep but still provides easy access for a person as needed.  

Sheep moving through a solar site. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse 

The sites that Bishop grazes were not created with the intention of solar grazing, and this can lead to difficulties such as a poor line of sight when moving sheep. Bishop has been able to overcome this issue with the assistance of a well-trained herding dog. It is only fitting that the reason she became involved in the solar grazing industry is now one of her greatest assets.  

In her solar grazing work, Bishop has seen a shift in community perception. During the initial stages of solar development, there was pushback from communities that did not want agricultural land being used for solar development. Once Bishop brought the idea of solar grazing to the community, there was still some hesitation toward the new concept, and no one knew what to expect. Her success has allowed the community to view dual-use solar in a different way, and there is now a positive perception of solar grazing in her area.  

As one of the first solar graziers, Bishop is well equipped to provide advice to those looking to join the industry. She suggests teaming up with someone who has experience in solar grazing to learn the ins and outs of the practice. Additionally, patience is necessary. It is difficult to plan, and there are often periods of waiting for approvals and construction. Finally, she recommends carefully selecting sheep that will be a good fit for the management system. 

Bishop is a true example of the beneficial opportunities that solar grazing can provide. The additional land access granted to her through her contracts allowed her to not only expand her operation, but also to become an innovator in the expanding industry.  

3. Contracts 

Once a grazier and solar developer have agreed to partner together to manage a site, a contract is needed. ASGA has partnered with the Food and Beverage Law Clinic at Pace University’s Elisabeth Haub School of Law to provide sample contracts for solar grazing. The contract serves as a template for a Master Services Agreement (MSA) involving all arrangements between the farmer and solar company. Additional Statements of Work (SOW) are included for specific terms within the contract.  

ASGA’s sample contract provides an ideal starting point for conversations between solar graziers and solar operators. It is important to consider that every site will be different, and the contract can be adjusted as needed. To ensure proper maintenance of the site and the relationship between the grazier and solar operator, both parties must fully understand what services are included in their contract. As solar grazing gains popularity, many farmers enter into contracts that allow them to provide a hybrid vegetation-management approach where the graziers maintain all or most of the vegetation at the site, including clean-up mows following grazing or spot-spraying as needed. Contract lengths and fees will vary depending on the site, and it is important to determine the best approach for both parties. This concept is one that United Agrivoltaics is familiar with. 

3.1 Case Study: Caleb Scott, United Agrivoltaics 

Caleb Scott of United Agrivoltaics at a solar site. Photo: Caleb Scott 

In 2012, Caleb Scott was working with solar developers to help seed and build sites. As he got more involved in the industry, his job expanded to help properly maintain these sites. Scott began mowing the solar sites but quickly realized it was a challenging task. Every site was different, with varying degrees of ground levelness, infrastructure spacing, and site vegetation-management requirements. Additionally, he had to be careful around the panels to avoid any damage from his equipment.  

When not working on-site, Scott, a seventh-generation farmer, took care of his flock of sheep. He realized that sheep would do a much better job at vegetation management than mowers and would get around easier. However, despite his experience in managing sheep and solar vegetation, it was difficult to convince the industry that sheep could be a valuable form of vegetation management. Scott began to work with Cornell University to collaborate with solar developers and use the University’s property to perform a demonstration site for solar grazing. This work gave him proof of concept, and he began grazing on solar sites in 2013.  

After Scott received his first solar grazing contract, he was able to grow and strengthen his practice. In addition to being a founding board member of the American Solar Grazing Association, he also created United Agrivoltaics, one of the first and oldest agrivoltaic sheep-grazing firms in the U.S. United Agrivoltaics functions as a co-operative to promote expansion of the solar grazing industry and now has 103 sites in nine states. The organization uses Scott’s unique background to provide vegetation management with solar grazing, as well as consulting to implement agrivoltaics on solar projects.  

Scott and the other 80+ graziers involved with United Agrivoltaics pride themselves on creating a healthy, shared-use system. While their specialty is in solar grazing with sheep, they have also used chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and pigs to help maintain the site vegetation and increase the overall productivity of the site. Scott uses three different styles of grazing: mob, rotational, and low-impact sustained grazing. These management methods provide financial benefits in some cases and health benefits in others. Scott’s main priority when deciding which style to use depends on what is going to work best for the on-site forage content, as well as for his farm and animals.  

United Agrivoltaics recognizes the variability between sites and offers different tiers of service to help overcome this. This is a major benefit for asset owners as it allows them to form a contract and relationship with one party for all their site-management needs. Scott’s full management package includes services such as exterior perimeter mows, spraying herbicide as needed to control noxious or invasive species, and a clean-up mow to manage the vegetation the sheep did not eat.  

The flexibility of United Agrivoltaics’ services has helped the organization grow over time. They are currently grazing 15,000 sheep on more than 5,100 acres of solar sites, with a goal to double the number of sheep in the upcoming year. Scott himself is grazing 650 sheep on 200 acres, and this growth allowed solar grazing to become his full-time job. He and United Agrivoltaics have purchased and acquired other companies along the way to help them grow.  

Sheep grazing the vegetation at a solar site. Photo: Caleb Scott 

As United Agrivoltaics continues to expand, they ensure that their services remain competitive with the costs of mechanical mowing. The grazing costs will vary depending on location and which rating scale the site owner chooses for their site. In an area with farm readiness considerations being met, fees can range from $380/acre for the full management package to more than $1,500/acre. Despite the large range in pricing, Scott recognizes that generalizing pricing would have a negative impact on the solar grazing industry due to the number of variables that determine contract pricing, such as site management requirements and feasibility for the grazier. 

In addition to difficulties associated with selecting the correct pricing for a site, insurance can be an added challenge when solar grazing, as extra costs typically do not outweigh the value of the contract. One of Scott’s biggest initial challenges in the solar grazing industry was learning to manage the site as dictated by the contract. In some cases, he has had to change his vision of what he thinks the site should look like in order to meet the site owner’s needs. Farming motives can differ from solar operation motives and requires calculating the correct stocking densities. 

To help overcome these challenges, Scott’s advice is to reach out and talk to someone who has done it before to ask a lot of questions and educate yourself.  

“This industry requires a lot of teamwork, especially since the solar grazing industry is so young and we have so few sheep in the country. We need to help and support one another.” — Caleb Scott. 

A trio of sheep on a solar site. Photo: American Solar Grazing Association 

Teaming up with individuals who have prior experience could allow for sharing things like insurance (costs), equipment, and other resources, which could mean saving additional money. It is also beneficial to discuss contracts with those who have experience. Scott recommends finding an organization, like ASGA, that helps farmers and joining them to learn and share ideas. 

This teamwork represents Scott’s overall goal for the solar grazing industry and United Agrivoltaics, which is to have as many sheep in the organization as are currently in the U.S. right now–over 3 million. He wants to accomplish this by expanding his company and farming group nationwide. By doing so, he hopes to see the sheep industry increase tenfold in the next 20 years, and he wants to be a part of that change. If this were to be accomplished, it would undoubtedly afford tremendous benefits for the solar-grazing industry. 

4. Operations and Maintenance Considerations 

As mentioned in the Bishop and Scott case studies, when solar grazing was first introduced, the solar sites were created without any consideration for bringing animals on-site. With solar grazing and agrivoltaics gaining popularity, site developers can,and should, place emphasis on creating a livestock-friendly array. Areas of consideration include site preparation and vegetation establishment, costs, and creating a safe environment for the animals and graziers. 

4.1 Site Preparation and Vegetation Establishment 

When preparing a site for solar development with the intention of grazing, it is important to involve multiple stakeholders, including O&M producers, graziers, environmental scientists, and the community. Conversations with these stakeholders should focus on Macknick et al.’s 5 Cs of success: collaboration, compatibility, solar panel configuration, climate, and crop selection and cultivation (Macknick, 2022).  

Establishing permanent pastures prior to site construction can improve soil health (Makhijani, 2021). Soil health can be monitored with soil testing over the project’s lifespan to ensure it is being properly managed. Diverse seed mixtures can provide optimal benefits for both site and animal health. For example, when grasses and legumes are sown together, the quality of forage and soil fertility is improved, with the higher-quality forage promoting animal health (Mamun et al., 2022; Andrew et al., 2024). Native and pollinator-friendly groundcover can also be considered, providing benefits for pollinators, the soil, and nearby agricultural land (Horowitz et al., 2020; Makhijani, 2021). No matter the approach to seeding a site, special care should be taken to avoid toxic or invasive species on-site and in perimeter areas.  

4.2 Cost Considerations for Grazing-Intended Solar Sites 

When establishing a solar site with the intention of including grazing animals, there are some additional considerations that can make a site easier to graze. These include providing water on-site, adjusting site layout to assist with rotational grazing, including permanent interior fencing, and in some cases—such as with grazing cows—raising the height of the panels. However, compared with the cost of photovoltaics over bare ground, solar grazing can reduce some site preparation costs related to clearing and grubbing, soil compaction, soil stripping, and stockpiling (Horowitz et al., 2020). Profits and costs are variable depending on the size and location of installations (Makhijani, 2021).  

Graziers also need to consider O&M costs that may be different from a traditional grazing system, such as the cost of travel to and from the site, hauling water to sites without water access, and potentially purchasing additional equipment to perform vegetation maintenance. Many of these costs can help graziers negotiate their grazing fees and will vary from site to site. Additional budgets can be accessed from ASGA. Even with additional considerations, a survey by Kochendoerfer found grazing sheep on solar to be a cost-effective method to control on-site vegetation, benefiting the site owners and operators, as well as the graziers (2019).  

4.3 Safety 

Graziers and solar developers must ensure there will be no risk to the livestock, graziers, or solar operators. For example, all wiring, inverters, CAB systems, and other equipment should be inaccessible to the livestock. Proper fencing, signage, and security should also be in place. This involves ensuring fences used for livestock are predator-proof. Signs should be posted on gates informing workers when animals are present and that gates should remain closed, and providing contact information in case of emergencies. Additional safety concerns include avoiding contact with electricity, personal protective equipment, and specifying who may enter the site (Owens, 2023).  

5. Animal Management Considerations 

In addition to O&M considerations, there are different ways to use livestock to manage the site. Site management can involve different methods of grazing and different breeds of livestock. It is important to choose the proper breed of livestock that is most compatible with the site’s features, such as vegetation type and panel height. 

5.1 Livestock Considerations 

Sheep grazing is the most common form of solar grazing, though cattle, rabbits, poultry, honey bees, pigs, and other animal operations are possible (Horowitz et al., 2020; Macknick et al., 2022). One reason that sheep are most common is that they fit in sites with little to no modification of conventional structures. Additionally, they are not known to stand or jump on equipment, do not chew wiring, and do not cause damage if they rub against the equipment (MRSEC, 2020). There are projects that incorporate cattle, but this can require a higher panel height or different site design (Makhijani, 2021). Despite the added cost, the solar panels can provide shade benefits for cows and could be feasible for areas where sheep are less common (Sharpe et al., 2021). Lytle et al. (2021) found rabbits to be viable for agrivoltaics, providing a high-value agricultural product that increased site revenue by 2.5 to 24.0% with less environmental impact than that from cattle (Makhijani, 2021). Rabbits on solar sites would require additional considerations, such as ensuring the interior fencing extends below the ground and providing lightweight portable shelters to protect against aerial predators. Regardless of which livestock is selected for solar grazing, the grazier will need to consider management styles that benefit both the animals and the solar site.  

5.2 Management Considerations 

While grazing animals on a solar site, factors such as grazing management style, stocking density, and timing should be considered. A prescribed grazing plan (PGP) can create the framework for graziers to follow during the solar facility’s operation and includes gauging stocking rates, timing of grazing and rest periods, vegetation standards, soil conditions, and other similar details (Macknick et al., 2022). Forage testing can be used to ensure forage quality is being maintained. Rotational grazing has clear environmental benefits and is often used on solar sites. This method is known to improve soil health and forage yield compared to continuous grazing or mechanical mowing, further supporting stocking rates and economic returns to farmers (MRSEC, 2020). Other management styles, including mob grazing, low-impact grazing, or intensive grazing can be used, depending on forage availability and vegetation management goals. ASGA has released resources pertaining to the mechanics of solar grazing that can help determine the proper protocol for a site. Furthermore, combining solar grazing with pollinators demonstrates the potential for solar sites to include many ecosystem services, as shown by MNL. 

5.3 Case Study: Jake Janski, MNL Pollinator Friendly Conservation Grazing 

Pollinator plants with solar. Photo: Jake Janski 

MNL is an organization with a mission to “Heal the Earth,” through ecological restoration and native species landscaping. As the organization progressed, they established projects on solar sites, including conservation grazing and prioritizing native seeds and plants that provide pollinator benefits. Jake Janski, who’s been with MNL for over 20 years, is one of the leading players for MNL’s conservation grazing projects.  

Janski, Senior Ecologist and the Director of Strategic Planning with MNL, contributes to the organization’s pollinator-friendly solar projects. As he continued his work, he began to see more need for prairie management on solar sites than what mowers could successfully provide. In typical situations, prescribed burns are often used to create a disturbance event, further promoting the health of the prairie. However, prescribed burns could not be used at the solar sites, requiring an alternative method.  

After meeting a sheep farmer in 2017 who lived near one of MNL’s pollinator-friendly solar sites, MNL decided to try sheep grazing to reinvigorate vegetation and remove dead thatch. With the timing falling at the beginning of the solar grazing industry’s development, and with Minnesota not having a large sheep industry, Janski focused on using sheep solely to help with the pollinator habitat. In other words, they used sheep as another tool for vegetation management and chose not to place the larger focus on sheep production. Janski started seeing surprisingly good results from this method and has built up from there, expanding MNL’s solar grazing projects.  

MNL currently has about 60 Minnesota sites that incorporate solar grazing, with the average site being 20- to 00 acres and 2 to 10 kW. To date, they use 2,500 sheep, and they hope to expand their collaboration with other graziers to increase that number.  

Sheep grazing amongst flowers at a solar site. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse 

The sheep graze the sites for two to four weeks to maintain the vegetation and account for stocking density. Since the sheep are used as a tool to promote pollinator habitat, there is some variability in animal management. There is an ideal time each year to graze the sites, but grazing at the same time each year would negatively interfere with the botanical species composition. To avoid this interference, MNL rotates the timing of grazing between years. 

Occasionally, the site will be grazed at a prime time for pollinators; however, Janski identified benefits for pollinators resulting from carefully managed solar grazing. For example, grazing allows for more gradual blooming periods. Staggering or delaying blooming extends the flowering season and will provide different food sources at different times. Grazing is also less aggressive, with plants rebounding faster than they would following a mowing event. This method promotes wildlife such as songbirds, rodents, and reptiles.  

Broadly speaking, Janski believes that grazing is far easier on all habitats. MNL has secured research funding to continue an on-going study investigating the grazing impacts on vegetation and plant communities at solar sites. The results from this study should further support the benefits of solar grazing.  

Monarch caterpillar and solar. Photo: Jake Janski 

Despite the benefits that Janski has observed over time, there are some challenges associated with promoting a healthy trifecta of solar energy production, pollinator habitat, and animal welfare and production. One of his greatest challenges is getting the price points that are needed to build a robust program. He is competing with some low-cost mowing companies, while also dealing with overwintering costs and expenses of hauling water to sites. Janski and the team at MNL had to learn new information at a quick pace about animal health, especially on a landscape with variable conditions. Over time, they’ve been able to create better systems and know what to plan for.  

Bringing sheep on-site has made some aspects of site management easier. They are dealing with less equipment damage and healthier soil. The sheep have helped with weed control, and while they have not completely eliminated the need for spot spraying, they are creating healthier plants with more competition that should make weed infestations less likely over time.  

Janski shared that there was a time when an electric short started a fire on a site; however, the sheep removed the majority of the fire fuel load, resulting in a low-intensity fire that did not get hot enough to cause any damage to the panels. This is in direct contrast to mowing, which leaves a lot of material on the ground, creating a thick dense layer of fuel for fires. 

With such clear advantages, it is no wonder that solar grazing has helped ease the majority of public discomfort regarding solar. Janski recognizes that agrivoltaics (solar grazing and solar pollinator habitat) can be an important, multi-purpose system that benefits communities. He reports that every group that interacts with MNL wants to hear about solar grazing and that they enjoy seeing livestock on the land. This positive support is also helping to get policymakers on board. MNL is in discussions with the state of Minnesota about pollinator scorecards and updated policy-level incentives. Furthermore, the Minnesota Department of Agriculture is beginning to push solar grazing from an agricultural perspective, giving others the confidence to get behind it.  

With an increase in community support, Janski recommends creating and maintaining good partnerships with solar companies. The solar industry is a much faster moving market than agriculture in general, so forming these relationships can provide valuable updates on developments within the solar industry.  

This ties in with what Janski identified as MNL’s future goal: to get as far ahead of development as possible. They want to build sites that serve as a solar site and as a farm, with structures and paddocks pre-built. The sites will also promote pollinator habitat. To accomplish this, more market analysis is needed to show the importance of investing in agrivoltaic modifications at the start of site planning. Janski and MNL want to expand their reach to other states that are not yet as solar-heavy. This can be accomplished by serving as consultants to provide and share evidence and examples of sites that have seen beneficial progress during the development and operation of an agrivoltaic site to large audiences through marketing. 

5.4 Goals and Benefits of Solar Grazing 

The goals and management considerations will vary from site to site. Thus, there are certain goals that remain consistent across all sites (MRSEC, 2020), including preventing vegetation from shading solar panels, controlling invasive plant species, maintaining a diverse plant community, controlling erosion, and maximizing the opportunity for soil carbon sequestration by increasing topsoil and root mass. When managed correctly, grazing can satisfy all five soil health principles: “soil armor, minimizing soil disturbance, plant diversity, continual live plant/root, and livestock integration” (USDA NRCS, no date). In addition to improving soil health, water efficiency and biomass yield can be increased (Horowitz et al., 2020). To improve water quality, the vegetative quality of pastures should be promoted, soil health should be maintained, and grazing should be actively managed (MacDonald, 2021). Benefits of solar grazing are further supported by research from Handler and Pearce, who determined the global warming potential of agrivoltaics involving sheep is 3.9% better than conventional photovoltaics and grazing sheep separately (2022). These benefits further support the need for best management practices in solar grazing.  

6. Conclusion 

The goal of this section was to provide an overview of solar grazing and explain best management practices that provide optimal benefits for graziers, solar developers, and the environment. When done correctly, this growing industry has the potential to improve the solar and agricultural industries while promoting shared-use systems. The American Solar Grazing Association is working to publish a more in-depth review of solar grazing best management practices as part of a grant funded by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s InSPIRE Project, expected to be released by the end of 2024.  

7. References 

AgriSolar Clearinghouse. 2023. How Agrisolar Helped the Cows Come Home to One Northeast Farm. June 23. agrisolarclearinghouse.org/watch-how-agrisolar-helped-the-cows-come-home-to-one-northeast-farm/. 

American Solar Grazing Association. Solar Grazing Budget Templates. Accessed March 15, 2024. solargrazing.org/resources/solar-grazing-budgets/ 

American Solar Grazing Association. No date. Recommendations. Accessed June 13, 2019. solargrazing.org/recommendations/ 

Andrew, Alyssa C., Chad W. Higgins, Mary A. Smallman, Maggie Graham, and Serkan Ates. 2021. Herbage Yield, Lamb Growth and Foraging Behavior in Agrivoltaic Production System. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. April. doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.659175 

Andrew, Alyssa C., Chad W. Higgins, Mary A. Smallman, David E. Prado-Tarango, Adolfo Rosati, Shayan Ghajar, Maggie Graham, and Serkan Ates. 2024. Grass and Forage Science, Grassland Science Journal, Wiley Online Library. February 13. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gfs.12653 

Handler, Robert and Joshua M. Pearce. 2022. Greener Sheep: Life Cycle Analysis of Integrated Sheep Agrivoltaic Systems. Cleaner Energy Systems. December. 100036. doi.org/10.1016/j.cles.2022.100036 

Horowitz, Kelsey, Vignesh Ramasamy, Jordan Macknick, and Robert Margolis. 2020. Capital Costs for Dual-Use Photovoltaic Installations: 2020 Benchmark for Ground-Mounted PV Systems with Pollinator-Friendly Vegetation, Grazing, and Crops. NREL/TP-6A20-77811. National Renewable Energy Lab. Golden, CO. doi.org/10.2172/1756713 

Kampherbeek, Emma W., Laura E. Webb, Beth J. Reynolds, Seeta A. Sistla, Marc R. Horney, Raimon Ripoll-Bosch, Jason P. Dubowsky, and Zachary D. McFarlane. 2023. A Preliminary Investigation of the Effect of Solar Panels and Rotation Frequency on the Grazing Behavior of Sheep (Ovis Aries) Grazing Dormant Pasture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. January. 105799. doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105799 

Kochendoerfer, Nikola, Lexie Hain, and Michael L Thonney. No date. The Agricultural, Economic and Environmental Potential of Co-Locating Utility Scale Solar with Grazing Sheep. 

Lytle, William, Theresa K. Meyer, Nagendra G. Tanikella, Laurie Burnham, Julie Engel, Chelsea Schelly, and Joshua M. Pearce. 2021. Conceptual Design and Rationale for a New Agrivoltaics Concept: Pasture-Raised Rabbits and Solar Farming. Journal of Cleaner Production. February. 124476. doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124476 

MacDonald, Michael J, Margaret Chamas, Robert Goo, Lexie Hain, and Sharon Tregaskis. 2021. Animal Grazing Impacts on Water Quality at Solar Electric Generation Sites. American Solar Grazing Association. 

Macknick, Jordan, Heidi Hartmann, Greg Barron-Gafford, Brenda Beatty, Robin Burton, Chong Seok-Choi, Matthew Davis, et al. 2022. The 5 Cs of Agrivoltaic Success Factors in the United States: Lessons from the InSPIRE Research Study. NREL/TP-6A20-83566. National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, CO. doi.org/10.2172/1882930 

Maia, Alex Sandro Campos, Eric de Andrade Culhari, Vinícius de França Carvalho Fonsêca, Hugo Fernando Maia Milan, and Kifle G Gebremedhin. 2020. Photovoltaic Panels as Shading Resources for Livestock. Journal of Cleaner Production. June. 120551. doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120551 

Makhijani, Arjun. 2021,. Exploring Farming and Solar Synergies: An Analysis Using Maryland Data. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. Takoma Park, MD. February. ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Agrivoltaics-report-Arjun-Makhijani-final-2021-02-08.pdf 

Mamun, Mohammad Abdullah Al, Paul Dargusch, David Wadley, Noor Azwa Zulkarnain, and Ammar Abdul Aziz. 2022. A Review of Research on Agrivoltaic Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. June. 112351. doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112351 

MNL. No date. Ecological Restoration and Minnesota Native Landscaping. Accessed March 15, 2024. mnlcorp.com/ 

Morris Ridge Solar Energy Center, LLC (MRSEC). 2020. Agricultural Integration Plan: Managed Sheep Grazing & Beekeeping. Case No. 18-F-0440. edf-re.com/wp-content/uploads/004C_Appendix-04-B.-Agricultural-Integration-Plan-and-Grazing-Plan.pdf 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. No date. Website homepage. Accessed March 15, 2024. nrel.gov/index.html 

Owens, Caroline. 2023. ASGA-Certified Solar Grazing Training Standards. solargrazing.org/asga-certification/  

Pascaris, Alexis S., Chelsea Schelly, Mark Rouleau, and Joshua M. Pearce. 2022. Do Agrivoltaics Improve Public Support for Solar? A Survey on Perceptions, Preferences, and Priorities. Green Technology, Resilience, and Sustainability. 2 (1): 8. doi.org/10.1007/s44173-022-00007-x. 

Sharpe, K.T., B J. Heins, E.S. Buchanan, and M.H. Reese. 2021. Evaluation of Solar Photovoltaic Systems to Shade Cows in a Pasture-Based Dairy Herd. Journal of Dairy Science. 104 (3): 2794–2806. doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-18821 

United Agrivoltaics. No date. Accessed March 15, 2024. unitedagrivoltaics.com 

U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2023. Energy Infrastructure and Resource Maps. October 18.  https://atlas.eia.gov/pages/energy-maps  

USDA NRCS. No date. Soil Health. Accessed June 23, 2023. nrcs.usda.gov/conservation-basics/natural-resource-concerns/soils/soil-health.