SETO Announces Funding Opportunity for Agrivoltaics
“The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) announced the Solar with Wildlife and Ecosystem Benefits 2 (SolWEB2) funding opportunity, which will award up to $11 million for research and development, technical assistance, and stakeholder engagement activities that improve the compatibility of large-scale solar (LSS) facilities with wildlife and facilitate the dual use of land for agricultural and solar energy production.
SETO expects to make three to eight awards under the SolWEB2 notice of funding opportunity (NOFO), each ranging from $1 million to $3 million.” – energy.gov
DOE Funding Opportunity Announced for Small Businesses
University of Hawaii Completes Agrivoltaics Research
“The University of Hawaiʻi’s Office of Sustainability and College of Engineering participated in a tour of the Hawaiʻi Agriculture Research Center (HARC) Agrisolar project in November. The event highlighted the intersection of renewable energy and agriculture, offering students a firsthand look at an innovative approach to sustainable land use.
The HARC Agrisolar project, established in collaboration with AES Corporation, Longroad Energy, and Clearway Energy Group, spans a 230-acre solar farm in Mililani. Underneath the panels, researchers have successfully cultivated crops such as lettuce, strawberries, radish and poha berries since the project’s inception in June 2022.” – Hawaii.edu
Czechia Passes Legislation for Agrivoltaics
“Czechia has introduced new legislation for deploying agrivoltaics. The law, effective from the start of this year, builds on initial measures introduced in May 2024.
The newly approved measures permit agrivoltaics to be installed on six crop types, including vineyards, hopyards, orchards, tree nurseries, crops in containers and truffle areas.” – PV Magazine
https://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/agrisolar-roundup-photo-scaled.jpg25602378A. J. Pucketthttps://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AgriSolar_stacked_1-338x400.pngA. J. Puckett2025-01-14 13:24:012025-01-14 13:24:01AgriSolar News Roundup: SETO AgriSolar Funding Announcement, DOE Funding Opportunity for AgriSolar, Hawaiian AgriSolar Research, AgriSolar Legislation in Czechia
By Stacie Peterson and Chris Lent, National Center for Appropriate Technology
Agrivoltaics is a practice defined as the co-location of crops and grazing under and adjacent to solar photovoltaic panels. The concept of agrisolar co-location goes beyond photovoltaic solar and includes other solar energy production that is not photovoltaic, such as solar thermal. Solar thermal is a term used to describe a technology, such as a crop dryer or solar water heater, that converts the energy from the sun into thermal energy. This thermal energy can be used to heat, dry, and distribute air, water, or heat transfer fluids. Solar thermal principles can be employed in crop drying, processing, and storage, and in water-intensive operations, like dairies.
In addition to solar photovoltaic energy production systems, solar thermal energy production is a great way to collect and utilize solar energy. In concentrated solar thermal (CST) production, energy from the sun is concentrated by mirrors, lenses, and parabolic dishes or troughs that reflect the heat energy to a collection point called a receiver. The accumulated energy is then used to power an electric generator. CST systems are often associated with utility-scale electric production; however, CST also has potential applications in commercial water heating, water desalination, and manufacturing. In agriculture, smaller-scale solar thermal systems can be used for crop and grain drying, food processing and drying, greenhouses, and to heat process water for dairies, such as the Winton Cone Optics system shown in in the photo below and described later in this section.
Winston Cone Optics Solar Thermal System. Photo: Winston Cone Optics
Solar Thermal Crop Drying Overview
The sun has been used to dry crops for preservation for millennia. This natural drying process exposes agricultural products to the sun and wind and continues to be used in certain regions to preserve crops because of its low cost and simplicity. It is limited by natural conditions that affect drying, including hours of sunshine and precipitation, which can lead to inconsistent and low-quality results. Sun drying can also be a lengthy process, leaving the crop susceptible to insects, animals, and birds.
Solar thermal drying is a method of dehydrating food crops and grains using solar energy. It’s an environmentally friendly and energy-efficient technique that harnesses heat from the sun to remove moisture from agricultural products and preserve them for periods of storage. Grains, fruits, vegetables, herbs, meat, and fish are some of the agricultural products that are dried to preserve their quality and for use in a variety of value-added products.
Crop dryers can be distinguished by the source of energy used to operate them. Three types are fossil fuel dryers, electric dryers, and solar energy dryers. It takes 2.4 megajoules of energy to evaporate 1 liter of water and most dryers operate at less than 50% efficiency, therefore requiring large energy inputs (Dhumne et al., 2015). Because of the cost to operate fossil fuel-powered and electric crop dryers, solar crop dryers have gained attention as a cost-saving alternative. Small-scale solar dryers have been used around the world, especially in areas where fuel and electricity are scarce and there are favorable sun and weather conditions.
Solar dryers are further categorized as either passive (using natural convection) or active (using powered convection). Within these two main types, there are three different designs for solar dryers: direct, indirect, and mixed-mode. All these systems have a solar collector component often made of glass or plastic, but it can also be a metal surface painted black to optimize solar energy collection. The solar collector absorbs sunlight and converts it into heat energy, which is then transferred to a drying chamber where food crops are spread in a thin layer to maximize exposure to the heated air.
One option for direct solar thermal crop drying is a greenhouse or high-tunnel structure with natural ventilation and screened tables and shelves inside to lay the product to be dried, as shown in the photo below. It is a best practice to add a solar-powered fan to force the circulation of air through the greenhouse or high tunnel.
Direct solar thermal crop drying of coffee beans. Photo: NCAT
A basic indirect solar dryer design, shown in Figure 1, includes an insulated box with a glass window that allows light in, a dark surface that absorbs light and radiates heat, an air inlet that allows cold air in, and an air outlet at a higher point in the dryer box that allows hot air, which naturally rises, out (Muhammad K., 2003). The heat of the sun, which is magnified in the solar dryer, and the natural movement of the air through the dryer work to dehydrate the crops placed in the dryer chamber. To avoid mold, a best practice is to clean the dryer chamber and remove condensation regularly. A solar-powered fan can also be incorporated into the design to lessen condensation and increase dehydration.
Figure 1. Schematic of a Solar Air Dryer. Graphic: NCAT
A variation on this design includes the incorporation of a fan, which can be solar-powered, and a drying chamber with crop trays that is separate from the solar collector (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Schematic of Solar Air Dryer with Separate Drying Chamber. Graphic: NCAT
Grain Drying
Grains such as rice, soybeans, corn, and wheat are almost always harvested at a moisture content that is too high for safe storage of the crop. High moisture levels in stored grain lead to spoilage and mold-induced aflatoxins that can ruin the crop and be harmful to animals and humans (NTP, 2021). To prevent this, grain is sometimes dried through natural air drying where air is forced through the perforated bottom of a grain bin and up through the stored grain by a fan. This can work well when the ambient air conditions are dry enough to allow for moisture to be removed from the grain. When the ambient conditions don’t allow for effective natural air drying, a heater is used to help dry the grain. Most stored grain in the U.S. is dried this way.
Solar Thermal Buildings and Grain Bins
The metal roof and side walls of an existing or new building can be converted into a solar thermal collector. In this application, the existing metal on the south-facing side of a building is painted black, and wooden purlins are attached to accept a second layer of metal or a clear covering. A metal covering creates what is called a bare-plate solar collector and a clear covering creates a covered-plate solar collector (Figure 3). The solar-heated air is then ducted to an adjacent grain bin. In a similar manner, the bin where the grain is being dried and stored can be converted to a solar thermal collector (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Solar Thermal Building
Figure 4. Solar Thermal Grain Bin
Solar Thermal for Process Water
In agricultural operations that require a lot of hot water, like dairy farms, heating water can account for as much as 40% of energy costs. On farms like these, solar thermal water heating can be used to reduce energy costs. Solar water heaters, much like the crop and grain dryers described above, require a solar collector to capture the sun’s energy. Depending on the design, this energy is transferred directly to the water being heated or to a heat transferring fluid, like glycol, that is pumped through a heat exchanger to heat water.
Designs vary for solar water-heating systems, but the basic components are a collector, a heat exchanger, and a hot-water storage tank. A basic schematic of a simple solar hot-water collector in Figure 5 below shows the basic principles of solar hot water heat collection and storage. Like solar dryers, the heat from the sun is transferred through a transparent or semi-transparent medium, like glass, and reservoirs of water behind the medium collect and store the solar heat. This hot water is then used in farm processes.
Figure 5. Simple Solar Thermal Water System (U.S. DOE, 2024)
As shown in Figure 5, solar thermal water systems often include a flat-plate collector. In this type of system, a flat metal plate is attached to metal tubes, which contain a heat transfer fluid that is used to heat water in a storage tank. This type of systems works best for water that does not need to be heated higher than 200°F (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2024). The main components of a flat-plate solar collector are:
A black or dark surface that absorbs solar energy.
A transparent cover that transmits solar radiation to the dark surface but prevents heat loss from the dark surface.
Tubes containing heat transfer fluid connected to the dark surface. These are often called evacuated tubes because they are designed as a set of two glass tubes, with the air between the tubes removed, or evacuated. This vacuum is created to reduce heat loss.
It is common to build a support structure with insulation around the plate and tubes. Figure 6 is a schematic of a basic flat-plate system.
FIGURE 6. Schematic of a flat-plate solar collector with liquid transport medium. Graphic: NCAT
In the case of Winston Cone Optics, the evacuated tubes are paired with solar reflectors, as shown in the photo below. A schematic of their process is shown in Figure 7. They can heat water, create steam, and deliver process heat up to 350°F with this system.
Winston Cone Optics solar reflectors and evacuated tubes. Photo: Winston Cone Optics
Solar thermal flat-plate collectors heating a high tunnel Photo: NCAT
The photo above shows a solar thermal flat-plate collector array coupled with a high tunnel. In this system, the collectors provide heat for an in-ground hydronic heating system in a 30 X 96-foot-high tunnel. Inside the high tunnel, an insulated 500-gallon, in-ground solar storage tank is heated with the heat transfer fluid circulating through the collector panels. Water circulating through PEX tubing buried under the growing beds is heated from the storage tank via a heat exchanger delivering heat to the root zone of the crops. A back-up heater is used to heat the water for cloudy days when solar can’t be used.
Solar thermal provides an opportunity to harvest sunlight and use the energy tin crop drying, processing, and storage. Solar thermal works by collecting sunlight, converting sunlight to heat, and by transferring heat via airflow or heat transfer fluids. Projects can be as simple as a solar air dryer, or as complex as a concentrated solar heating system for a diary. By working with the sun, thermal energy can help make farm processes more efficient and environmentally friendly while saving significant energy costs.
National Toxicology Program (NTP). 2021. Report on Carcinogens, Fifteenth Edition. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Research Triangle Park, NC.
U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2024. Solar thermal collectors. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2024. Solar Water Heaters. energy.gov/energysaver/solar-water-heaters
Access the PDF of this publication here:
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“Solar energy advocates believe agrivoltaics could have many benefits in Nova Scotia. There are now more than 10,000 solar installations in Nova Scotia, according to the non-profit group that’s trying to build up solar infrastructure in the province. That’s up from 8,000 this time last year and just 200 in 2018. ‘Farmers in Nova Scotia have been real leaders on the uptake of solar,’ said David Brushett, board chair of Solar Nova Scotia. ’There’s a real strong interest among the agricultural sector in solar.’” – cbc.com
New Albania Law Recognizes Agrisolar Development
“The Kuvendi – the Parliament of Albania – changed the Law on the Pasture Fund. Lawmaker Edona Bilali from the ruling Socialist Party of Albania submitted the bill, citing numerous requests for photovoltaic and wind installations. In the solar power segment, PV panels now need to be mounted at least five meters above the surface to allow cattle grazing.” – balkangreenenergynews.com
Agrisolar Recognized on World Soil Day
“Solar energy and agriculture are proving their relationship is a mutually beneficial one. As technology improves and more farmers adopt solar solutions, we can expect to see even more innovative applications emerge. Solar energy is ushering in a new era of sustainable agriculture.
As we mark World Soil Day (Dec. 5), it’s also worth celebrating that it is also a transformative force to be reckoned with in farming! Here are 5 key ways that solar energy is revolutionizing farming practices around the world.” – earthday.org
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Known as the “Sunshine State,” it’s easy to see why solar energy production should be right at home in Florida. The state is also one of the country’s top agricultural producers, raising billions of dollars worth of specialty crops and livestock each year. Agrivoltaics seems like a natural fit and a potential option for farmers and ranchers looking to diversify their revenue and support the growth of renewable energy in the state. At Fiddlehead Farms, owners Walter and Sharon Liebrich are embracing that potential, working hard to bring an agrisolar pilot project and educational space to life in Tallahassee.
Walter’s interest in agrivoltaics is deeply rooted in his passion for renewable energy. In 1998, Walter was the High School Florida State Champion in Policy Debate when the yearlong topic debated the pros and cons of increasing the use of renewable energy in the U.S. Then in 2004, he earned a Master’s degree in Public Administration from the Askew School of Public Administration at Florida State University. At the time he was in graduate school, connecting a solar project to the grid was an opportunity largely limited to big businesses and utilities. His thesis advocated for solar net metering and interconnection policies for individuals and small businesses in the state, something that wouldn’t be in the Florida statutes until 2008. After earning his degree, Walter went on to work as a Senior Policy and Budget Analyst in the Governor’s Office for 15 years before transitioning into the solar industry. He is also on the Board of Directors for ReThink Energy, a local nonprofit dedicated to community outreach and education for Floridians as the city moves towards its clean energy goals. Through his work with ReThink Energy, Walter joined the Tally 100% Together Coalition and helped to pass a unanimous city commission resolution in 2023, committing Tallahassee to 100% renewable energy by 2050.
The Liebrich Family.
Walter and Sharon both share a passion for farming and gardening, as well. After meeting in 2009, they started pursuing those passions together by cultivating an edible landscape at their home, with the goal of having their child pick the vegetables for that night’s dinner right in their own backyard. The 0.3-acre primary residence in midtown Tallahassee is home to many varieties of citrus, blueberries, blackberries, fig, pears, mangos, kiwi, avocado, pineapple, peaches and more. They also have a year-round seasonal garden comprised of anything from broccoli, kale, and arugula to tomatoes, peppers, and squash. They began their apiary work in 2019, successfully cultivating bees to help support the worldwide food shortage. By 2023, their impressive dedication to renewable energy and specialty crop production led them to set their sights on a new goal: creating an agrivoltaic community solar project.
Around the same time, the Tallahassee City Commission unanimously adopted the 100% renewable energy resolution, and Walter and Sharon poured their entire life savings into the purchase of a 5-acre piece of property adjacent to a new public park and cypress preserve in Tallahassee. Their vision for the newly purchased land includes a 1-megawatt agrivoltaic array that would provide locally grown produce for the community, while also helping bring the city closer to its 100% renewable energy goals. However, before that vision can come to life, they must overcome some regulatory barriers for solar in the City of Tallahassee. “Anything from 100 kilowatts to 75 megawatts is all basically regulated under the same umbrella, which is extremely cost-prohibitive,” Walter explains. Projects in this size range are required to undergo thousands of dollars of grid and impact studies before an array can be built. Fortunately, thanks to all his volunteer work with ReThink Energy and Tally 100%, Walter has cultivated a network of professionals in the city and utility, who all want to see his vision become a reality. He understands the importance of building bridges further from home, as well. From the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to the Florida State Director of the Office of Energy, Walter continues to make connections that will be vital in the project’s success. He continues to work with city officials towards a positive change in the regulations for mid-size projects, as well.
The solar aspect of the pilot project might still be in the early stages, but there’s already a lot happening at the site on the agricultural front. The unkept land was mostly filled with invasive species and heavily vining plants when Walter and Sharon bought it. Clearing invasive species, wild vines, and other biomass on-site is necessary for the project’s implementation. That doesn’t mean that the site will be clear cut and bulldozed, though. Instead, selected areas will be cleaned up while others will remain largely as they are. Any brush and invasive trees that do need to be removed are being used to create biochar, which Walter then uses to construct the raised beds for the row crops. Kale, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, squash, pineapple, banana, and kiwi will all make an appearance throughout the year.The site is also home to wild sparkleberries and persimmon bushes. These plants will be incorporated into the site’s agricultural production by grafting their close, more familiar cousins onto the existing bushes. Japanese Fuyu persimmons will be grafted onto the wild persimmon bushes, and blueberries will be grafted onto the sparkleberries. Once the plans for solar panels are solidified, they will be built around and above the raised beds and bushes already in place.
Biochar raised beds.
Looking ahead, Fiddlehead Farms hopes to make a positive impact on both local communities and the agrisolar research community. Most of the food grown at the site will be donated to Second Harvest of the Big Bend, a nonprofit fighting food insecurity in the region. When it comes to research, Walter understands the importance of having test sites and welcomes collaborations with universities, research institutions, and solar companies. He hopes to install a variety of racking types, tracking abilities, and panel heights across the site. Fiddlehead Farms is also a nonprofit organization, and anyone interested in becoming involved in the project is encouraged to reach out to Walter and his team at fiddleheadfarmstlh@gmail.com.
It’s easy to see the decades of passion and vision behind Fiddlehead Farms. Pilot projects play an important role in showcasing the potential for agrivoltaics to truly make a difference in local communities. Whether it’s providing locally grown food to those in need or working with public officials to make positive changes in renewable energy policy, Fiddlehead Farms is poised to do it all for the Tallahassee area. “From the beginning, I’ve understood the importance of building all kinds of bridges. National, state, and local – even the friends that we’ve made here with the neighbors at the site,” Walter explains. Fiddlehead Farms is the next step in bringing those people together and strengthening the resiliency of the local community.
As agrivoltaics gain traction across the United States, research on barriers and opportunities for co-locating agriculture with solar is expanding. The SCAPES solar research project, led by the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, has received funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture to study how to efficiently co-locate photovoltaic and agricultural systems in various biogeographical regions. As part of this research, the project team created a survey to better understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of such co-location.
Your voice matters! Please take 15 minutes to complete this survey. Your participation is greatly appreciated and will contribute to the success of our research. Your insights can impact future agrivoltaic considerations. We encourage all industry representatives to participate.
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Agricultural Land Usually Remains in Agriculture After Solar and Wind Development
“As [agrisolar] development has expanded, some communities have raised concerns about the local effects of solar and wind projects. USDA, Economic Research Service researchers recently studied how solar and wind development affects land cover near wind turbines and solar farms.
“This year, the company will launch the AQUA salt-resistant double-glass module series, featuring double-layer coated glass with excellent density and light transmittance, POE encapsulation technology, highly waterproof seal performance of junction box, and apply a thicker oxidized film coating to shield the aluminum frame from corrosion.
After more than 15 years of operation in Taiwan and the worldwide renewable energy market, WIN WIN Precision Technology has demonstrated expertise in customizing solar modules for island climates, its solar brand WINAICO holds exclusive patents for the wind-resistant and water drain valve designs.” – prnewswire.com
Illinois Farmer Successfully Adapts to Solar Grazing
“[Trent] Gerlach’s family had been raising corn, soybeans, and livestock since 1968, and like many farmers, they leased farmland in addition to working their own land. And when the owner of one of those leased parcels decided to work with Acciona Energia to help site its High Point wind and solar farm, Gerlach initially was not enthusiastic.
‘The thought of taking productive farm ground out of production with solar panels was not, in my personal opinion, ideal,’ he said.
But Gerlach was determined to make the best of the situation.
Ultimately, that meant a win-win arrangement, where Acciona pays him to manage vegetation around the 100 MW array of solar panels that went online in early 2024. Gerlach does that with a herd of 500 sheep.
‘It’s incredibly cost-effective — sheep don’t break down like a tractor; if a tractor blows a belt, you’ve lost a whole day of cutting,’ he said. ‘These grasses grow wickedly fast, it’s that constant presence of the sheep that’s been super effective. It aligns with our sustainability goals.’” – canarymedia.com
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Gary Paul Nabhan, PhD., Agroecologist, Borderlands Restoration Network
When most Americans think of crop production, they tend to imagine crops growing in full sunlight to achieve their full potential for productivity. But over decades,there has always been crop production in shade habitats or constructed environments, as well. Indeed, much of the coffee and chocolate (cocoa) consumed as beverages has been grown under shade-bearing, nitrogen-fixing legume trees such as madrecacao (Glyericidia sepia), a tropical tree with a dense and expansive canopy that protects understory crops from excessive heat and damaging radiation.
Virtually all the food crops, forages, and medicinal herbs grown in North American agroforestry and alley-cropping systems are to some extent shade-tolerant. Many—like chile peppers—can comfortably tolerate a 35% to 50% reduction in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) compared to open sunlight all day. They seldom suffer a yield reduction due to less sunlight in this range, especially from noon to 4 p.m. Iin fact, yields in some varieties are augmented, perhaps because a significant percentage of all arid, temperate, and tropical wild plants evolved to begin their lives under the shade of “nurse plants” and have evolved shade tolerance to varying degrees over millennia. More than 30,000 farmers in the U.S. were engaging in one or more types of agroforestry practices by 2017, when agrivoltaic practices first hit the American scene.
Agrivoltaic pepper plants in Arizona. Photo: NCAT
Benefits and Challenges of Solar and Crop Co-Location
So, what kind of benefits do shade-grown crops receive, and what are the challenges of growing crops under any kind of shade, for both the trees and the solar panels?
Benefits
Let’s first look at the benefits. Shade reduces the amount of sunburn or sun scald that understory plants receive but particularly reduces the effects of damaging ultraviolet radiation. It also serves as a temperature buffer, reducing high summer temperatures by as much as 4°F to 6°F and keeping winter temperatures in crop canopies 2°F to 4°F warmer—in some cases, enough to avert premature freezes or to extend the frost-free growing season by as much as three weeks. With less direct sun, evaporation of water from the soil and transpiration from the leaves are reduced, and soil moisture stress may not be as severe.
The flowers of crops abort less in cooler temperatures, and they also attract more pollinators. Plant desiccation is not only reduced, but the nitrogen content of the foliage also does not spike enough to trigger feeding frenzies by leaf-sucking or browsing insects. At the same time, the Brix levels—an indicator of how sweet and nutritious vegetables and herbs might be—is sustained at higher levels, adding to the value of the crop.
Perhaps the ultimate advantage is that it buffers farmworkers managing or harvesting from severe heat stress and dehydration in hot summers, improving their harvesting efficiency and reducing their vulnerability to hazards and illness. In 2023 alone, 30,000 more outdoor workers in the U.S. succumbed to heat stress than in any other year in recorded history. Since hand-harvested crops are time-consuming, their harvesters are especially vulnerable.
Thermal image showing farm worker under a solar panel with a body temperature of 80°F and an outdoor temperature over 100°F. Photo: NCAT
Challenges
The disadvantages of co-location are more obvious for some sun-loving plants than for others. If the canopy tree or solar panel “competes” for too much light, it will result in reductions in photosynthesis and yields, thereby impeding the growth of the underling. However, there may be more humidity retained in the under-panel microclimate that fosters fungal diseases and possibly leads to more plant damage from insects that thrive on the fungal environment.
Crop height may be impeded, requiring more pruning or difficulty in harvesting. And of course, most mechanical harvesters of high stature are eliminated from use if panel are 5 meters (16.4 feet) or less in height.
Lastly, the space under photovoltaic panels is economically and ecologically costly per square meter; the metal, copper wiring and glass or plastic fiber glazing in photovoltaic panels is burdened with considerable “embedded energy” within it, so each panel provides small but very expensive growing space (except when compared to high-tech, computerized greenhouses with air conditioning and movable benches.) It is unlikely that growing grains or dry beans under photovoltaic arrays will ever be cost-effective.
So, what is different and distinctive about the shaded growing spaces under photovoltaic panels? For one thing, these areas have solid or slotted covers, rather than being diffused and porous like most leafy canopies. Secondly, all constructed spaces in a photovoltaic array are of similar height and size, whereas the height and size(s) are highly variable in natural or semi-managed forests.
In natural settings, “nurse trees” also offer much more than shade and temperature buffering to understory plants; they also offer mycorrhizal connections and soil fertility renewal. Some deep-rooted legume trees also pump and leak water and nutrients to other plants in their nurse plant guild that are too young to do this on their own
The crops discussed here that are most suitable for agrivoltaics conditions are high-value cash crops or nutritionally dense fruits and vegetables for home or community consumption. These crops are more suitable for agrivoltaics conditions compared to grain or bean crops, for example. Medicinals and pharmafood crops would likely be a better fit for growing conditions that are produced from dual-use land environments.
Agrivoltaic pepper plants in Arizona. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse
Considerations for Crop Selection
It is important to consider what shape, size, and habit of crop plants might be most appropriate for agrivoltaics production over an extended period of time. When considering crops that will be well-suited for the conditions of an agrivoltaics site, it is important to consider the following points.
Crop Characteristics:
Vining or “bush” growth forms
Sun-loving or shade-loving
Height and width of fully grown plant
Multiple harvests or single harvests required?
Root depth
If we were to design an “ideotype” best suited to the photovoltaic micro-environment, it would need to meet at least five of the following plant characteristics:
Vertically-vining or “indeterminate” growth forms that make maximum use of the space under solar panels by being trellised or “stiffer” scandent plants that lean upon a trellis (such as dragon fruit and capers). Vining plants that spread out beyond the perimeters of the panels may have a cooling effect that increases photovoltaic energy production efficiency (his strategy assumes that the interspaces between panels are not being utilized in another way).
Tolerate moderate (especially mid-day) shade, with interception or screening of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the range from 35 to 50% of total daylight,
Growth habit that will allow for harvesting of seed, fruit, flowers, floral buds, or leaves from waist high (1 meter or 3.28 feet) to shoulder-high (1.4 to 1.8 meters or 4.59 to 5.9 feet) above the ground to allow work by hand or mechanical harvesters.
Can be harvested or “cut” multiple times per season, pruning them to stimulate subsequent regrowth and recutting within three to four weeks of the previous harvest.
Be either deep-rooted or shallow-rhizomatous perennials with runners, or longer-lived seasonal annuals that can be uprooted after the last harvest to allow new transplants to go into the same space.
Now that we’ve established the ideal architectural and behavioral criteria for selecting crop plants, here is a list of crops that meet three or more of these criteria. These lists emphasize high-value crop plants that have other adaptations to hot, dry conditions but may require partial shade or frequent cutting and harvesting.
Berry vines and bushes with long, arching shoots that can be both vertically and horizontally trellised: currants, dewberries, gooseberries (Ribes spp.);brambleberries, blackberries, dewberries, and loganberries (Ribes spp.), grapes, including muscadines, musquats, scuppernongs, etc. (Vitis spp.)
Arborescent and scandent cacti with high-value fruit: cochineal nopal (Opuntia cochiillifera) dragonfruit cacti, including white-fleshed pitahaya (Selinicereus undulatus), red-fleshed pitahaya (Selenicereus costaricensis), and yellow pitahaya (Selenicereus megalanthus); pitahaya agrias (Stenocereus gummosus, S. quereteroensis, and S. griseus), longer-lived seasonal annuals that can be pulled up after the last harvest to allow new transplants to go into the same space.
Short-stature shrubs with copious production of fruits, buds, or berries over a long season: capers (Capparisspinosa); capulín sand cherries (Prunus salicifolia); chiltepín, chile del arbol, shishito, etc. (Capsicum annuum); Mexican hawthorn or tejocote (Crataegus mexicana); elderberry (Sambucus nigra); goji or wolfberry (Lycium barbarum, L. chinense, L. fremontii, and L. pallidum); Persian lime (Citrus x latifolia); key lime (Citrus aurantifolia); kumquat (Fortunella margarita and hybrids); jujube (Zizyphus jujba); guava (Psidium guajava); hibiscus or Jamaican sorrel (Hibiscus sabdardiff); ormaypops and passion fruit (Passiflora spp.).
Perennial culinary herbs that can tolerate (or increase production with) frequent, severe cuttings: Mexican oregano (Lippia berlandieri, L. graveolens), saffron (Crocus sativus), Mexican tarragon (Tagetes lucida), papaloquelite (Porophyllum ruderale) Sierra Madre oregano (Poliomentha madrensis), lavandin (Lavendula intermedia), Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus).
Dwarf or drastically pruned trees with high-value fruit: dwarf varieties of figs (Ficus spp.), pomegranates (Punica granatum), cherries, including the Mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), olive (Olea europea), Sechuan peppers (Zanthoxylum armatum, Z. bungeanum, and Z. simulans), and Mediterranean sumac (Rhus coriaria).
Long-season annual herbs or perennial pharmafoods (nutriceuticals) that can tolerate frequent cuttings: sweetleaf stevia (Stevia rebaudiana), holy basil or tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum), damiana (Turnera diffusa), saffron (Crocus sativus), wild Lebanese cucumber-melon (Cucumis melo, a parent of the popular beit-alpha greenhouse cucumber); and chia (Salvia hispanica).
It is important to consider what horticultural design and density qualifies as having the optimal features required to grow in agrivoltaics conditions, for none of these proposed crops need to be grown in evenly spaced monoculture. For instance, the least sun-sensitive crop varieties can go on the periphery of the solar panels, preserving the core area for the most shade-tolerant varieties or species.
A Speaker Discusses Agrivoltaics in Arizona. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse
Alternatively, taller woody perennials can be placed under the highest levels of the panels, with the shorter varieties or species reserved for the shortest area toward the “front” of the angled panel. However, new designs of photovoltaics have computerized solar trackers for mobile or reclinable units, so that may become an irrelevant consideration in the future. Another option is to grow indeterminate vine crops such as cucumbers or grapes on the periphery of the solar panel shadow. This might allow those crops to “crawl out,” and provide greenery that reduces ambient temperatures on the panel surface. This may increase daily energy production efficiency and extend the lifetime of the panel(s).
A final consideration is that for extremely high-value crops like pharmafoods and pharmaceuticals, screening the sides of the growing space may reduce or halt predation by insects or vertebrate herbivores. The overall cost of construction and production in an agrivoltaic system would remain far less than that for most commercial greenhouses, but the agrivoltaic micro-climate and growing space would then be considered a “controlled environment.”
When selecting crops that are uniquely suited to be grown in agrivoltaic settings, consider the guidance provided above. Ask questions related to the features of the solar panel design, including height, width, and other design features, as well as measurements. Then, consider the plant characteristics that are being considered for that site: height, width, water consumption, root depth, harvesting schedule, etc. Next, form a strategy from the characteristics you have identified for both the panels and the plants and make an informed decision about what will work best for that specific agrivoltaic site, as agrivoltaics conditions can vary from one site to another.
https://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/image-7.jpeg1349899A. J. Pucketthttps://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AgriSolar_stacked_1-338x400.pngA. J. Puckett2024-10-17 10:40:062024-10-17 10:47:23Crops Uniquely Suited to Growth in Agrivoltaic Settings
Leroy J. Walston, Heidi Hartmann, Laura Fox, Michael Ricketts, Ben Campbell, and Indraneel Bhandari, Argonne National Laboratory
This section highlights several types of agrivoltaic options related to ecosystem services that include siting considerations, ecological impacts of dual-use sites, construction methods and habitat restoration strategies. One type focuses on ecologically focused siting, construction, and vegetation management principles in an effort to make photovoltaic (PV) solar energy more ecologically compatible. This includes minimizing ecological impacts associated with siting and construction and improving the ecological value of the site through habitat enhancement. Given its ecological focus, this form of agrivoltaics design is often referred to as ecovoltaics (Sturchio and Knapp, 2023; Tölgyesi et al., 2023).
The co-location of solar energy and habitat restoration (i.e., habitat-friendly solar‘ or solar-pollinator habitat) has become the most popular ecovoltaics strategy to safeguard biodiversity and improve the site’s ecosystem services output. Habitat-friendly solar designs typically focus on the planting and establishment of deep-rooted and regionally appropriate native grasses, wildflowers, and other non-invasive naturalized flowering plant species. The habitat created at these sites could support insect pollinators and other wildlife and improve other ecosystem services of the site (Figure 1).
But what ecosystem service benefits might be realized at solar facilities managed for habitat? Agrivoltaics can broadly improve the output of all classes of ecosystem services (Figure 2). Conceptually, solar-pollinator habitat has the potential to improve the outputs of all classes of ecosystem services (Table 1).
The pairing of solar energy and habitat enhancement sounds like a logical win-win for clean energy and biodiversity. However, several factors can influence the feasibility and ecological effectiveness of solar-pollinator habitat, such as geography, seed availability and cost, previous land use, soil type, and solar size and design (e.g., PV panel height and spacing). Several scientific studies have been conducted in recent years to examine different solar-pollinator habitat configurations and management options. Two studies in particular are the Innovative Solar Practices Integrated with Rural Economies and Ecosystems (InSPIRE; openei.org/wiki/InSPIREopenei.org/wiki/InSPIRE) and Pollinator Habitat Aligned with Solar Energy (PHASE; rightofway.erc.uic.edu/phase). Both projects are funded by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) and include a focus on the ecological and economic implications of solar-pollinator habitat. Results from these studies have shed light on which vegetation establishes at solar sites based on their unique management needs and the amount of time required for vegetation to establish and for biodiversity responses to be measured. These studies incorporate the research findings intoguidelines and toolkits to assist the site-specific selection of seed mixes and management strategies to optimize the performance of solar-pollinator habitat based on ecological and economic (budget) objectives.
Figure 1. A) Illustration of the theoretical ecosystem services of solar-pollinator habitat. Compared to conventional groundcover, such as turfgrass, solar-pollinator habitat can provide higher-quality habitat for biodiversity. B) Example image of solar-pollinator habitat at a solar site in Minnesota. Images: Argonne National Laboratory
Table 1. Potential Ecosystem Services of Solar-Pollinator Habitat.
Ecosystem Service
Benefit
Biodiversity conservation (broadly linked to all ecosystem service classes)
Solar-pollinator habitat can safeguard biodiversity by supporting a larger diversity of organisms and communities. This could benefit several ecosystem services, such as food production (provisioning), recreation (cultural), water conservation (regulating), and nutrient cycling (supporting) (Walston et al., 2021, 2022, 2024; Blaydes et al., 2024).
Energy production (provisioning service)
Solar-pollinator vegetation can create favorable microclimates to improve PV panel performance (Choi et al., 2023).
Food production (provisioning service)
Solar-pollinator habitat can improve populations of insect pollinators and predators, which can benefit nearby agricultural production (Walston et al., 2024).
Carbon sequestration and soil health (regulating services)
The establishment of solar-pollinator habitat typically involves soil and vegetation management practices that allow for greater soil carbon sequestration over time, compared to other land uses (Walston et al., 2021).
Stormwater and erosion control (regulating service)
Deep-rooted solar-pollinator habitat can help stabilize soil and minimize runoff (Walston et al., 2021).
Nutrient cycling and air quality (supporting services)
Solar-pollinator habitat can improve nutrient cycling and air quality (Wratten et al. 2012; Agostini et al., 2021).
Aesthetics and recreation (cultural services)
Solar-pollinator habitat can improve human perception public acceptance of the solar site (Moore et al., 2021).
What are best practices for establishing solar-pollinator habitat?
There is growing science-based evidence on the ecological effectiveness of solar-pollinator habitat. Most of this research focuses on two main aspects: 1) vegetation establishment and management; and 2) biodiversity responses (Figure 2). One critical need for the solar industry has been assistance in selecting the seed mix design and vegetation management tools that would optimize the establishment of solar-pollinator habitat for a site’s specific physical characteristics (e.g., geographic region, soil type), PV site design (e.g., plant height restrictions), and budget. To help guide these decisions, the DOE PHASE project has produced a series of tools to inform solar-pollinator habitat planting implementation, seed selection, cost comparisons, and habitat assessment (Figure 3).
What do we know about the effectiveness of solar-pollinator habitat?
This section highlights objectives and outcomes from field research projects funded by DOE to understand the ecosystem services of solar-pollinator habitat. Two case studies are presented: 1) potential biodiversity benefits of solar-pollinator habitat; and 2) potential benefits of solar-pollinator habitat for soil health.
Case Study 1: If You Build It, They Will Come
A recent study from the DOE InSPIRE project examined the biodiversity responses for five years following the establishment of solar-pollinator habitat (Walston et al., 2024). The research was conducted at two Minnesota PV solar facilities owned and operated by Enel Green Power. The research team from Argonne National Laboratory, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Minnesota Native Landscapes conducted a longitudinal field study over five years (2018 to 2022) to understand how insect communities responded to newly established habitat on solar energy facilities in agricultural landscapes. Specifically, they investigated: 1) temporal changes in flowering plant abundance and diversity; 2) temporal changes in insect abundance and diversity; and 3) pollination services of solar-pollinator habitat to nearby agricultural fields. The team found increases over time for all habitat and biodiversity metrics. For example, by 2022, the researchers observed a sevenfold increase in flowering plant species richness, and native abundance increased by over 20 times the numbers initially observed in 2018 (Figure 4). The research team also found positive effects of proximity to solar-pollinator habitat on bee visitation to nearby soybean (Glycine max) fields. Bee visitation to soybean flowers adjacent to solar-pollinator habitat were greater than bee visitation to soybean field interior and roadside soybean flowers (Figure 5). These observations highlight the relatively rapid (less than four years) insect community responses to solar-pollinator habitat. This study also demonstrates that, if properly sited and managed, solar-pollinator habitat can be a feasible way to safeguard biodiversity and increase food security in agricultural landscapes. Photos of solar-pollinator habitat insects visiting the on-site vegetation at these sites are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 4. Observed and predicted measures of (A) flowering plant species richness and (B) native bee abundance recorded over time at two PV solar facilities planted with pollinator-friendly habitat in Minnesota. (Walston et al., 2024).
Figure 5. Observed bee visitation to soybean flowers at different field locations in Minnesota. Different letters indicate statistically different groups at the p = 0.05 level (Walston et al., 2024).
Figure 6. Solar-pollinator habitat and insects observed at solar facilities in Minnesota. Top: solar-pollinator habitat dominated by purple prairie clover and black-eyed Susan flowers, with a honeybee visiting a flower (inset). Bottom: solar-pollinator habitat dominated by yellow coneflower. Photos: Argonne National Laboratory
Case Study 2: Soil Health Benefits of Solar-Pollinator Habitat
As PV solar energy sites become increasingly common, there is growing interest in identifying potential co-benefits, in addition to energy production, that could be provided using the same land area (Choi et al., 2023). These co-benefits include a variety of both economic and ecosystem services, many of which rely greatly on preserving, restoring, and/or maintaining a healthy soil environment, which is itself a valuable ecosystem service. Healthy soils are key to supporting and nurturing plant growth, and solar facilities offer a unique opportunity to improve soils that are either naturally low-quality or have been degraded from decades of agriculture. This can be accomplished through a variety of strategic planning initiatives and land management practices that focus on minimizing soil and vegetation disturbances and encouraging the establishment of ecologically friendly and sustainable ecosystems. By understanding the relationships and interactions that exist between plants and the soil environment, wecan gain valuable insights into how to maximize land-use efficiency and increase sustainable land management practices over the large areas of land that will be required for utility-scale solar facility development needed to achieve the renewable energy goals of the United States by 2050.
Just as healthy soil is necessary to support plant growth, plants can help improve soil health through various mechanisms (Figure 7). Soil health is characterized by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological properties, including bulk soil density, water infiltration and holding capacity, soil organic carbon and available nutrient contents, soil pH and cation exchange capacity, and microbial activity and diversity. Plant roots, especially those from deep-rooting perennial species (such as are found in many pollinator seed mixes), help reduce soil erosion and improve soil structure by providing a supportive network of course and fine roots that stabilize soil particles and aggregates while simultaneously improving water infiltration. Plants also supply organic matter, carbon, and other nutrients to the soil environment viasurface leaf litter, root exudates, and root litter. These organic matter inputs serve as nutrient pools for micro- and macro-organisms in the soil, and to increase soil water-holding capacity. Additionally, a portion of the carbon from plant organic matter inputs and microbial necromass will end up becoming associated with soil minerals to form mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM), which can have very long residence times in soil and serve as a carbon sink for atmospheric CO2 (Bai and Cotrufo, 2022).
There are many ways that vegetation can be used at solar facility sites to provide additional benefits beyond increasing soil health. While there is much research that has shown the positive effects of vegetation on soil health, research that specifically addresses how soil health indicators are affected by land management practices at solar facilities is lacking. Given what is known, it is reasonable to expect that sustainable vegetation management at solar facilities will result in improved soil health over time. However, this is likely dependent on the degree of disturbance sustained during site construction, and possibly any number of other controlling factors, such as local climate, native vegetation, and/or soil type. For example, Choi et al. (2020) found that even after seven years of revegetation at a solar facility site in Colorado, carbon and nitrogen concentrations had not recovered to comparable levels of adjacent reference grasslands. The authors attributed this to the significant amount of topsoil removal and grading that occurred during site construction, which significantly disturbed and mixed the soil profile, resulting in severely reduced surface carbon and nitrogen levels. However, this study did not compare vegetated areas to non-vegetated areas within the site. Another study by Choi et al. (2023) did make this comparison at a site in Minnesota where topsoil removal and grading were avoided. The researchers found that revegetated areas had significantly more carbon, nitrogen, and other nutrients levels relative to the areas that were left bare and were ultimately similar to adjacent control plots (Figure 8). This disparity in results and lack of clear data presents a challenge to understanding soil health dynamics as it relates to land management practices at solar facilities.
Fortunately, DOE SETO has sponsored a project whose sole focus is to gather soil data from solar facilities across a wide range of environments in the United States that can hopefully address this question. This project, Ground-mounted Solar and Soil Ecosystem Services, is being led by Argonne National Laboratory and will provide standardized guidance on measuring and analyzing soil parameters central to soil health at solar facilities, and establish a national database of solar facility soil data that will hopefully shed light on how vegetation and land management at solar facilities can impact soil health over time.
REFERENCES
Agostini, A., M. Colauzzi, and S. Amaducci. 2021. Innovative agrivoltaic systems to produce sustainable energy: an economic and environmental assessment. Applied Energy.281: 116102.
Bai, Y. and M.F. Cotrufo. 2022. Grassland soil carbon sequestration: Current understanding, challenges, and solutions. Science. 377: 603–608.
Blaydes, H., S.G. Potts, J.D. Whyatt, and A. Armstrong. 2024. On-site floral resources and surrounding landscape characteristics impact pollinator biodiversity at solar parks. Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 5: e12307.
Choi, C.S., A.E. Cagle, J. Macknick, D.E. Bloom, J.S. Caplan, and S. Ravi. 2020. Effects of Revegetation on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties in Solar Photovoltaic Infrastructure. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 8: 140.
Choi, C.S., J. Macknick, Y. Li, D. Bloom, J. McCall, and S. Ravi. 2023. Environmental Co‐Benefits of Maintaining Native Vegetation with Solar Photovoltaic Infrastructure. Earth’s Future. 11: e2023EF003542.
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Moore, S., H. Graff, C. Ouellet, S. Leslie, D. Olweean, and A. Wycoff. 2021. Developing Utility-Scale Solar Power in Michigan at the Agriculture-Energy Nexus. Stakeholder Perspectives, Pollinator Habitat, and Trade-offs. Report for the Institute for Public Policy and Social Research, Michigan State University. Available at ippsr.msu.edu/mappr/developing-utility-scale-solar-power-michigan-agriculture-energy-nexus. Accessed March 29, 2024.
Sturchio, M.A. and A.K. Knapp. 2023. Ecovoltaic principles for a more sustainable, ecologically informed solar energy future. Nature Ecology & Evolution. 7: 1746-1749.
Tölgyesi, C., Z. Bátori, J. Pascarella, et al. 2023. Ecovoltaics: framework and future research directions to reconcile land-based solar power development with ecosystem conservation. Biological Conservation. 285: 110242.
Walston, L.J., Y. Li, H.M. Hartmann, J. Macknick, A. Hanson, C. Nootenboom, E. Lonsdorf, and J. Hellmann. 2021. Modeling the ecosystem services of native vegetation management practices at solar energy facilities in the Midwestern United States. Ecosystem Services. 47: 101227.
Walston, L.J., T. Barley, I. Bhandari, B. Campbell, J. McCall, H.M. Hartmann, and A.G. Dolezal. 2022. Opportunities for agrivoltaic systems to achieve synergistic food-energy-environmental needs and address sustainability goals. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 16: 932018.
Walston, L.J., H.M. Hartmann, L. Fox, J. Macknick, J. McCall, J. Janski, and L. Jenkins. 2024. If you build it, will they come? Insect community responses to habitat establishment at solar energy facilities in Minnesota, USA. Environmental Research Letters. 19: 014053.
Wratten, S.D., M. Gillespie, A. Decourtye, E. Mader, and N. Desneux. 2012. Pollinator habitat enhancement: benefits to other ecosystem services. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 159: 112-122.
https://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/image-13.png7201231A. J. Pucketthttps://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AgriSolar_stacked_1-338x400.pngA. J. Puckett2024-10-01 10:26:092024-10-01 10:26:27Ecosystem Services of Habitat-Friendly Solar Energy
Solar grazing is a relatively new and growing industry that uses livestock—most commonly sheep—to graze solar sites as a form of vegetation management. Within these systems, graziers form a contract with site owners to be compensated a fee for grazing to promote a shared purpose of the land and reduce the usage of traditional, mechanical mowing. Solar grazing compared to traditional (gas-powered) vegetative maintenance offers benefits for the solar operator, grazier, and animals.
Graziers receive additional land access to expand their grazing operation in a financially stable way, while their animals have access to improved forage quality and shaded environments (Kampherbeek et al., 2023; Andrew et al., 2021; Maia et al., 2020). Solar operators gain community support from co-locating solar and agriculture while also improving soil health through proper grazing management (Pascaris et al., 2022; Makhijani, 2021). This section seeks to identify best management practices for solar grazing to capitalize on maximum benefits for those involved in the solar-grazing industry.
2. Land Access
One main component of solar grazing practices is to understand the importance of a contract that aligns with the specific elements of the operation and agreements between the involved parties. While solar grazing allows graziers to expand their access to land beyond their home farm, there are many factors to consider before getting involved in a (solar grazing) contract. The ability to have livestock on solar sites is dictated by the state, city, and site owner. For graziers interested in starting solar grazing, EIA’s Energy Mapping Tool is useful for finding constructed solar arrays across the United States.
A strong network of connections during this process is one of the greatest resources a potential solar grazier can have. The American Solar Grazing Association (ASGA) is a valuable organization for helping to establish connections with farmers and solar developers, providing several resources and recommendations to get started. The process of starting grazing at a solar site may not always be quick and easy, but with some patience, the benefits from having additional land access from solar greatly outweighs the challenges. As one of the first solar graziers in the U.S., Solar Sheep LLC’s Julie Bishop has experienced this firsthand.
2.1 Case Study: Julie Bishop, Solar Sheep LLC
Julie Bishop’s involvement in the solar grazing industry began with a snowball effect after receiving a herding dog. Once she acquired a herding dog for her grazing operation, she trained it in herding at her home, which progressed to owning ewes and lambs and operating a hobby sheep farm. Then, in 2013, Bishop discovered that there was a solar field just five miles from her New Jersey home. She soon realized that sheep could manage the vegetation just as well as the traditional gas-powered mowers that were used on the site. She then got to work to make her idea a reality.
Bishop began the lengthy process of getting her sheep on that solar site. The land had originally been used as agricultural land but had been forfeited for the sole use of solar. Bishop and the solar company had to go to the municipality to ask for agriculture to be reinstated at that site. Additionally, they had to appear in front of the zoning and planning departments, send a letter to the community, and hold an open comment period in order to receive a variance. Finally, after nearly a year, Bishop was approved to move forward and was able to bring her sheep on-site for grazing.
A sheep under solar panels. Photo: American Solar Grazing Association
Despite being one of the first solar graziers and not having connections to consult, Bishop was able to successfully manage her first site. News of this success spread, and additional companies reached out to Bishop to form new contracts. Since then, she has grazed in three states.
Bishop says that solar grazing changed her life. Once a teacher, she is now a successful farmer who is only able to have her sheep operating at a larger capacity than she initially anticipated because of solar grazing. Her home farm is six acres, but the solar sites she grazes provide her the space she needs to expand her operation. She is now at the point of maximum capacity unless she changes her management style.
Currently, Bishop puts dry ewes on the solar site in the spring, then adds and removes rams, and brings the ewes home at the end of the grazing season to lamb around November and December. The lambs are then weaned, and the dry ewes return to the solar site. To expand her operation, Bishop would instead start lambing on the solar site around April and May. While the lambing process requires a lot of initial work, it would lead to a less labor-intensive and lower input management for Bishop. Along with changing the way she grazes, Bishop is waiting for more solar sites that are in close proximity to her home farm.
In addition to the challenges with expanding, Bishop identified some aspects of solar sites that can prove difficult when compared to traditional sheep management, such as site layout, trucking in water, and exterior perimeter fences that lack proper predator-proofing. After years of experience, Bishop has the knowledge and practice to overcome these challenges. For example, she worked with the solar developer at a site to build a bracket to prevent sheep from rubbing up against an emergency switch. The bracket keeps the equipment safe from the sheep but still provides easy access for a person as needed.
Sheep moving through a solar site. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse
The sites that Bishop grazes were not created with the intention of solar grazing, and this can lead to difficulties such as a poor line of sight when moving sheep. Bishop has been able to overcome this issue with the assistance of a well-trained herding dog. It is only fitting that the reason she became involved in the solar grazing industry is now one of her greatest assets.
In her solar grazing work, Bishop has seen a shift in community perception. During the initial stages of solar development, there was pushback from communities that did not want agricultural land being used for solar development. Once Bishop brought the idea of solar grazing to the community, there was still some hesitation toward the new concept, and no one knew what to expect. Her success has allowed the community to view dual-use solar in a different way, and there is now a positive perception of solar grazing in her area.
As one of the first solar graziers, Bishop is well equipped to provide advice to those looking to join the industry. She suggests teaming up with someone who has experience in solar grazing to learn the ins and outs of the practice. Additionally, patience is necessary. It is difficult to plan, and there are often periods of waiting for approvals and construction. Finally, she recommends carefully selecting sheep that will be a good fit for the management system.
Bishop is a true example of the beneficial opportunities that solar grazing can provide. The additional land access granted to her through her contracts allowed her to not only expand her operation, but also to become an innovator in the expanding industry.
3. Contracts
Once a grazier and solar developer have agreed to partner together to manage a site, a contract is needed. ASGA has partnered with the Food and Beverage Law Clinic at Pace University’s Elisabeth Haub School of Law to provide sample contracts for solar grazing. The contract serves as a template for a Master Services Agreement (MSA) involving all arrangements between the farmer and solar company. Additional Statements of Work (SOW) are included for specific terms within the contract.
ASGA’s sample contract provides an ideal starting point for conversations between solar graziers and solar operators. It is important to consider that every site will be different, and the contract can be adjusted as needed. To ensure proper maintenance of the site and the relationship between the grazier and solar operator, both parties must fully understand what services are included in their contract. As solar grazing gains popularity, many farmers enter into contracts that allow them to provide a hybrid vegetation-management approach where the graziers maintain all or most of the vegetation at the site, including clean-up mows following grazing or spot-spraying as needed. Contract lengths and fees will vary depending on the site, and it is important to determine the best approach for both parties. This concept is one that United Agrivoltaics is familiar with.
3.1 Case Study: Caleb Scott, United Agrivoltaics
Caleb Scott of United Agrivoltaics at a solar site. Photo: Caleb Scott
In 2012, Caleb Scott was working with solar developers to help seed and build sites. As he got more involved in the industry, his job expanded to help properly maintain these sites. Scott began mowing the solar sites but quickly realized it was a challenging task. Every site was different, with varying degrees of ground levelness, infrastructure spacing, and site vegetation-management requirements. Additionally, he had to be careful around the panels to avoid any damage from his equipment.
When not working on-site, Scott, a seventh-generation farmer, took care of his flock of sheep. He realized that sheep would do a much better job at vegetation management than mowers and would get around easier. However, despite his experience in managing sheep and solar vegetation, it was difficult to convince the industry that sheep could be a valuable form of vegetation management. Scott began to work with Cornell University to collaborate with solar developers and use the University’s property to perform a demonstration site for solar grazing. This work gave him proof of concept, and he began grazing on solar sites in 2013.
After Scott received his first solar grazing contract, he was able to grow and strengthen his practice. In addition to being a founding board member of the American Solar Grazing Association, he also created United Agrivoltaics, one of the first and oldest agrivoltaic sheep-grazing firms in the U.S. United Agrivoltaics functions as a co-operative to promote expansion of the solar grazing industry and now has 103 sites in nine states. The organization uses Scott’s unique background to provide vegetation management with solar grazing, as well as consulting to implement agrivoltaics on solar projects.
Scott and the other 80+ graziers involved with United Agrivoltaics pride themselves on creating a healthy, shared-use system. While their specialty is in solar grazing with sheep, they have also used chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and pigs to help maintain the site vegetation and increase the overall productivity of the site. Scott uses three different styles of grazing: mob, rotational, and low-impact sustained grazing. These management methods provide financial benefits in some cases and health benefits in others. Scott’s main priority when deciding which style to use depends on what is going to work best for the on-site forage content, as well as for his farm and animals.
United Agrivoltaics recognizes the variability between sites and offers different tiers of service to help overcome this. This is a major benefit for asset owners as it allows them to form a contract and relationship with one party for all their site-management needs. Scott’s full management package includes services such as exterior perimeter mows, spraying herbicide as needed to control noxious or invasive species, and a clean-up mow to manage the vegetation the sheep did not eat.
The flexibility of United Agrivoltaics’ services has helped the organization grow over time. They are currently grazing 15,000 sheep on more than 5,100 acres of solar sites, with a goal to double the number of sheep in the upcoming year. Scott himself is grazing 650 sheep on 200 acres, and this growth allowed solar grazing to become his full-time job. He and United Agrivoltaics have purchased and acquired other companies along the way to help them grow.
Sheep grazing the vegetation at a solar site. Photo: Caleb Scott
As United Agrivoltaics continues to expand, they ensure that their services remain competitive with the costs of mechanical mowing. The grazing costs will vary depending on location and which rating scale the site owner chooses for their site. In an area with farm readiness considerations being met, fees can range from $380/acre for the full management package to more than $1,500/acre. Despite the large range in pricing, Scott recognizes that generalizing pricing would have a negative impact on the solar grazing industry due to the number of variables that determine contract pricing, such as site management requirements and feasibility for the grazier.
In addition to difficulties associated with selecting the correct pricing for a site, insurance can be an added challenge when solar grazing, as extra costs typically do not outweigh the value of the contract. One of Scott’s biggest initial challenges in the solar grazing industry was learning to manage the site as dictated by the contract. In some cases, he has had to change his vision of what he thinks the site should look like in order to meet the site owner’s needs. Farming motives can differ from solar operation motives and requires calculating the correct stocking densities.
To help overcome these challenges, Scott’s advice is to reach out and talk to someone who has done it before to ask a lot of questions and educate yourself.
“This industry requires a lot of teamwork, especially since the solar grazing industry is so young and we have so few sheep in the country. We need to help and support one another.” — Caleb Scott.
A trio of sheep on a solar site. Photo: American Solar Grazing Association
Teaming up with individuals who have prior experience could allow for sharing things like insurance (costs), equipment, and other resources, which could mean saving additional money. It is also beneficial to discuss contracts with those who have experience. Scott recommends finding an organization, like ASGA, that helps farmers and joining them to learn and share ideas.
This teamwork represents Scott’s overall goal for the solar grazing industry and United Agrivoltaics, which is to have as many sheep in the organization as are currently in the U.S. right now–over 3 million. He wants to accomplish this by expanding his company and farming group nationwide. By doing so, he hopes to see the sheep industry increase tenfold in the next 20 years, and he wants to be a part of that change. If this were to be accomplished, it would undoubtedly afford tremendous benefits for the solar-grazing industry.
4. Operations and Maintenance Considerations
As mentioned in the Bishop and Scott case studies, when solar grazing was first introduced, the solar sites were created without any consideration for bringing animals on-site. With solar grazing and agrivoltaics gaining popularity, site developers can,and should, place emphasis on creating a livestock-friendly array. Areas of consideration include site preparation and vegetation establishment, costs, and creating a safe environment for the animals and graziers.
4.1 Site Preparation and Vegetation Establishment
When preparing a site for solar development with the intention of grazing, it is important to involve multiple stakeholders, including O&M producers, graziers, environmental scientists, and the community. Conversations with these stakeholders should focus on Macknick et al.’s 5 Cs of success: collaboration, compatibility, solar panel configuration, climate, and crop selection and cultivation (Macknick, 2022).
Establishing permanent pastures prior to site construction can improve soil health (Makhijani, 2021). Soil health can be monitored with soil testing over the project’s lifespan to ensure it is being properly managed. Diverse seed mixtures can provide optimal benefits for both site and animal health. For example, when grasses and legumes are sown together, the quality of forage and soil fertility is improved, with the higher-quality forage promoting animal health (Mamun et al., 2022; Andrew et al., 2024). Native and pollinator-friendly groundcover can also be considered, providing benefits for pollinators, the soil, and nearby agricultural land (Horowitz et al., 2020; Makhijani, 2021). No matter the approach to seeding a site, special care should be taken to avoid toxic or invasive species on-site and in perimeter areas.
4.2 Cost Considerations for Grazing-Intended Solar Sites
When establishing a solar site with the intention of including grazing animals, there are some additional considerations that can make a site easier to graze. These include providing water on-site, adjusting site layout to assist with rotational grazing, including permanent interior fencing, and in some cases—such as with grazing cows—raising the height of the panels. However, compared with the cost of photovoltaics over bare ground, solar grazing can reduce some site preparation costs related to clearing and grubbing, soil compaction, soil stripping, and stockpiling (Horowitz et al., 2020). Profits and costs are variable depending on the size and location of installations (Makhijani, 2021).
Graziers also need to consider O&M costs that may be different from a traditional grazing system, such as the cost of travel to and from the site, hauling water to sites without water access, and potentially purchasing additional equipment to perform vegetation maintenance. Many of these costs can help graziers negotiate their grazing fees and will vary from site to site. Additional budgets can be accessed from ASGA. Even with additional considerations, a survey by Kochendoerfer found grazing sheep on solar to be a cost-effective method to control on-site vegetation, benefiting the site owners and operators, as well as the graziers (2019).
4.3 Safety
Graziers and solar developers must ensure there will be no risk to the livestock, graziers, or solar operators. For example, all wiring, inverters, CAB systems, and other equipment should be inaccessible to the livestock. Proper fencing, signage, and security should also be in place. This involves ensuring fences used for livestock are predator-proof. Signs should be posted on gates informing workers when animals are present and that gates should remain closed, and providing contact information in case of emergencies. Additional safety concerns include avoiding contact with electricity, personal protective equipment, and specifying who may enter the site (Owens, 2023).
5. Animal Management Considerations
In addition to O&M considerations, there are different ways to use livestock to manage the site. Site management can involve different methods of grazing and different breeds of livestock. It is important to choose the proper breed of livestock that is most compatible with the site’s features, such as vegetation type and panel height.
5.1 Livestock Considerations
Sheep grazing is the most common form of solar grazing, though cattle, rabbits, poultry, honey bees, pigs, and other animal operations are possible (Horowitz et al., 2020; Macknick et al., 2022). One reason that sheep are most common is that they fit in sites with little to no modification of conventional structures. Additionally, they are not known to stand or jump on equipment, do not chew wiring, and do not cause damage if they rub against the equipment (MRSEC, 2020). There are projects that incorporate cattle, but this can require a higher panel height or different site design (Makhijani, 2021). Despite the added cost, the solar panels can provide shade benefits for cows and could be feasible for areas where sheep are less common (Sharpe et al., 2021). Lytle et al. (2021) found rabbits to be viable for agrivoltaics, providing a high-value agricultural product that increased site revenue by 2.5 to 24.0% with less environmental impact than that from cattle (Makhijani, 2021). Rabbits on solar sites would require additional considerations, such as ensuring the interior fencing extends below the ground and providing lightweight portable shelters to protect against aerial predators. Regardless of which livestock is selected for solar grazing, the grazier will need to consider management styles that benefit both the animals and the solar site.
5.2 Management Considerations
While grazing animals on a solar site, factors such as grazing management style, stocking density, and timing should be considered. A prescribed grazing plan (PGP) can create the framework for graziers to follow during the solar facility’s operation and includes gauging stocking rates, timing of grazing and rest periods, vegetation standards, soil conditions, and other similar details (Macknick et al., 2022). Forage testing can be used to ensure forage quality is being maintained. Rotational grazing has clear environmental benefits and is often used on solar sites. This method is known to improve soil health and forage yield compared to continuous grazing or mechanical mowing, further supporting stocking rates and economic returns to farmers (MRSEC, 2020). Other management styles, including mob grazing, low-impact grazing, or intensive grazing can be used, depending on forage availability and vegetation management goals. ASGA has released resources pertaining to the mechanics of solar grazing that can help determine the proper protocol for a site. Furthermore, combining solar grazing with pollinators demonstrates the potential for solar sites to include many ecosystem services, as shown by MNL.
5.3 Case Study: Jake Janski, MNL Pollinator Friendly Conservation Grazing
Pollinator plants with solar. Photo: Jake Janski
MNL is an organization with a mission to “Heal the Earth,” through ecological restoration and native species landscaping. As the organization progressed, they established projects on solar sites, including conservation grazing and prioritizing native seeds and plants that provide pollinator benefits. Jake Janski, who’s been with MNL for over 20 years, is one of the leading players for MNL’s conservation grazing projects.
Janski, Senior Ecologist and the Director of Strategic Planning with MNL, contributes to the organization’s pollinator-friendly solar projects. As he continued his work, he began to see more need for prairie management on solar sites than what mowers could successfully provide. In typical situations, prescribed burns are often used to create a disturbance event, further promoting the health of the prairie. However, prescribed burns could not be used at the solar sites, requiring an alternative method.
After meeting a sheep farmer in 2017 who lived near one of MNL’s pollinator-friendly solar sites, MNL decided to try sheep grazing to reinvigorate vegetation and remove dead thatch. With the timing falling at the beginning of the solar grazing industry’s development, and with Minnesota not having a large sheep industry, Janski focused on using sheep solely to help with the pollinator habitat. In other words, they used sheep as another tool for vegetation management and chose not to place the larger focus on sheep production. Janski started seeing surprisingly good results from this method and has built up from there, expanding MNL’s solar grazing projects.
MNL currently has about 60 Minnesota sites that incorporate solar grazing, with the average site being 20- to 00 acres and 2 to 10 kW. To date, they use 2,500 sheep, and they hope to expand their collaboration with other graziers to increase that number.
Sheep grazing amongst flowers at a solar site. Photo: AgriSolar Clearinghouse
The sheep graze the sites for two to four weeks to maintain the vegetation and account for stocking density. Since the sheep are used as a tool to promote pollinator habitat, there is some variability in animal management. There is an ideal time each year to graze the sites, but grazing at the same time each year would negatively interfere with the botanical species composition. To avoid this interference, MNL rotates the timing of grazing between years.
Occasionally, the site will be grazed at a prime time for pollinators; however, Janski identified benefits for pollinators resulting from carefully managed solar grazing. For example, grazing allows for more gradual blooming periods. Staggering or delaying blooming extends the flowering season and will provide different food sources at different times. Grazing is also less aggressive, with plants rebounding faster than they would following a mowing event. This method promotes wildlife such as songbirds, rodents, and reptiles.
Broadly speaking, Janski believes that grazing is far easier on all habitats. MNL has secured research funding to continue an on-going study investigating the grazing impacts on vegetation and plant communities at solar sites. The results from this study should further support the benefits of solar grazing.
Monarch caterpillar and solar. Photo: Jake Janski
Despite the benefits that Janski has observed over time, there are some challenges associated with promoting a healthy trifecta of solar energy production, pollinator habitat, and animal welfare and production. One of his greatest challenges is getting the price points that are needed to build a robust program. He is competing with some low-cost mowing companies, while also dealing with overwintering costs and expenses of hauling water to sites. Janski and the team at MNL had to learn new information at a quick pace about animal health, especially on a landscape with variable conditions. Over time, they’ve been able to create better systems and know what to plan for.
Bringing sheep on-site has made some aspects of site management easier. They are dealing with less equipment damage and healthier soil. The sheep have helped with weed control, and while they have not completely eliminated the need for spot spraying, they are creating healthier plants with more competition that should make weed infestations less likely over time.
Janski shared that there was a time when an electric short started a fire on a site; however, the sheep removed the majority of the fire fuel load, resulting in a low-intensity fire that did not get hot enough to cause any damage to the panels. This is in direct contrast to mowing, which leaves a lot of material on the ground, creating a thick dense layer of fuel for fires.
With such clear advantages, it is no wonder that solar grazing has helped ease the majority of public discomfort regarding solar. Janski recognizes that agrivoltaics (solar grazing and solar pollinator habitat) can be an important, multi-purpose system that benefits communities. He reports that every group that interacts with MNL wants to hear about solar grazing and that they enjoy seeing livestock on the land. This positive support is also helping to get policymakers on board. MNL is in discussions with the state of Minnesota about pollinator scorecards and updated policy-level incentives. Furthermore, the Minnesota Department of Agriculture is beginning to push solar grazing from an agricultural perspective, giving others the confidence to get behind it.
With an increase in community support, Janski recommends creating and maintaining good partnerships with solar companies. The solar industry is a much faster moving market than agriculture in general, so forming these relationships can provide valuable updates on developments within the solar industry.
This ties in with what Janski identified as MNL’s future goal: to get as far ahead of development as possible. They want to build sites that serve as a solar site and as a farm, with structures and paddocks pre-built. The sites will also promote pollinator habitat. To accomplish this, more market analysis is needed to show the importance of investing in agrivoltaic modifications at the start of site planning. Janski and MNL want to expand their reach to other states that are not yet as solar-heavy. This can be accomplished by serving as consultants to provide and share evidence and examples of sites that have seen beneficial progress during the development and operation of an agrivoltaic site to large audiences through marketing.
5.4 Goals and Benefits of Solar Grazing
The goals and management considerations will vary from site to site. Thus, there are certain goals that remain consistent across all sites (MRSEC, 2020), including preventing vegetation from shading solar panels, controlling invasive plant species, maintaining a diverse plant community, controlling erosion, and maximizing the opportunity for soil carbon sequestration by increasing topsoil and root mass. When managed correctly, grazing can satisfy all five soil health principles: “soil armor, minimizing soil disturbance, plant diversity, continual live plant/root, and livestock integration” (USDA NRCS, no date). In addition to improving soil health, water efficiency and biomass yield can be increased (Horowitz et al., 2020). To improve water quality, the vegetative quality of pastures should be promoted, soil health should be maintained, and grazing should be actively managed (MacDonald, 2021). Benefits of solar grazing are further supported by research from Handler and Pearce, who determined the global warming potential of agrivoltaics involving sheep is 3.9% better than conventional photovoltaics and grazing sheep separately (2022). These benefits further support the need for best management practices in solar grazing.
6. Conclusion
The goal of this section was to provide an overview of solar grazing and explain best management practices that provide optimal benefits for graziers, solar developers, and the environment. When done correctly, this growing industry has the potential to improve the solar and agricultural industries while promoting shared-use systems. The American Solar Grazing Association is working to publish a more in-depth review of solar grazing best management practices as part of a grant funded by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s InSPIRE Project, expected to be released by the end of 2024.
Andrew, Alyssa C., Chad W. Higgins, Mary A. Smallman, Maggie Graham, and Serkan Ates. 2021. Herbage Yield, Lamb Growth and Foraging Behavior in Agrivoltaic Production System. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. April. doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.659175
Andrew, Alyssa C., Chad W. Higgins, Mary A. Smallman, David E. Prado-Tarango, Adolfo Rosati, Shayan Ghajar, Maggie Graham, and Serkan Ates. 2024. Grass and Forage Science, Grassland Science Journal, Wiley Online Library. February 13. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gfs.12653
Handler, Robert and Joshua M. Pearce. 2022. Greener Sheep: Life Cycle Analysis of Integrated Sheep Agrivoltaic Systems. Cleaner Energy Systems. December. 100036. doi.org/10.1016/j.cles.2022.100036
Horowitz, Kelsey, Vignesh Ramasamy, Jordan Macknick, and Robert Margolis. 2020. Capital Costs for Dual-Use Photovoltaic Installations: 2020 Benchmark for Ground-Mounted PV Systems with Pollinator-Friendly Vegetation, Grazing, and Crops. NREL/TP-6A20-77811. National Renewable Energy Lab. Golden, CO. doi.org/10.2172/1756713
Kampherbeek, Emma W., Laura E. Webb, Beth J. Reynolds, Seeta A. Sistla, Marc R. Horney, Raimon Ripoll-Bosch, Jason P. Dubowsky, and Zachary D. McFarlane. 2023. A Preliminary Investigation of the Effect of Solar Panels and Rotation Frequency on the Grazing Behavior of Sheep (Ovis Aries) Grazing Dormant Pasture. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. January. 105799. doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105799
Kochendoerfer, Nikola, Lexie Hain, and Michael L Thonney. No date. The Agricultural, Economic and Environmental Potential of Co-Locating Utility Scale Solar with Grazing Sheep.
Lytle, William, Theresa K. Meyer, Nagendra G. Tanikella, Laurie Burnham, Julie Engel, Chelsea Schelly, and Joshua M. Pearce. 2021. Conceptual Design and Rationale for a New Agrivoltaics Concept: Pasture-Raised Rabbits and Solar Farming. Journal of Cleaner Production. February. 124476. doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124476
MacDonald, Michael J, Margaret Chamas, Robert Goo, Lexie Hain, and Sharon Tregaskis. 2021. Animal Grazing Impacts on Water Quality at Solar Electric Generation Sites. American Solar Grazing Association.
Macknick, Jordan, Heidi Hartmann, Greg Barron-Gafford, Brenda Beatty, Robin Burton, Chong Seok-Choi, Matthew Davis, et al. 2022. The 5 Cs of Agrivoltaic Success Factors in the United States: Lessons from the InSPIRE Research Study. NREL/TP-6A20-83566. National Renewable Energy Lab, Golden, CO. doi.org/10.2172/1882930
Maia, Alex Sandro Campos, Eric de Andrade Culhari, Vinícius de França Carvalho Fonsêca, Hugo Fernando Maia Milan, and Kifle G Gebremedhin. 2020. Photovoltaic Panels as Shading Resources for Livestock. Journal of Cleaner Production. June. 120551. doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120551
Makhijani, Arjun. 2021,. Exploring Farming and Solar Synergies: An Analysis Using Maryland Data. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. Takoma Park, MD. February. ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Agrivoltaics-report-Arjun-Makhijani-final-2021-02-08.pdf
Mamun, Mohammad Abdullah Al, Paul Dargusch, David Wadley, Noor Azwa Zulkarnain, and Ammar Abdul Aziz. 2022. A Review of Research on Agrivoltaic Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. June. 112351. doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112351
MNL. No date. Ecological Restoration and Minnesota Native Landscaping. Accessed March 15, 2024. mnlcorp.com/
Pascaris, Alexis S., Chelsea Schelly, Mark Rouleau, and Joshua M. Pearce. 2022. Do Agrivoltaics Improve Public Support for Solar? A Survey on Perceptions, Preferences, and Priorities. Green Technology, Resilience, and Sustainability. 2 (1): 8. doi.org/10.1007/s44173-022-00007-x.
Sharpe, K.T., B J. Heins, E.S. Buchanan, and M.H. Reese. 2021. Evaluation of Solar Photovoltaic Systems to Shade Cows in a Pasture-Based Dairy Herd. Journal of Dairy Science. 104 (3): 2794–2806. doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-18821
https://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Caleb-Scott-SGrazing-01-1.png367482A. J. Pucketthttps://www.agrisolarclearinghouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/AgriSolar_stacked_1-338x400.pngA. J. Puckett2024-09-30 10:14:132024-09-30 10:14:14Solar Grazing Best Management Practices
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